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To the extent that time intervals are even intelligible, on this view, they are not measured but rather defined by changes in clock faces.
This difficulty is generally not measured, but rather, it is the "unable to ventilate and unable to intubate" scenario that is considered the true difficulty.
The surface charge, which exists at the interface between the medium and the particle, is not directly measured but rather is derived from the measured zeta potential.
Often times, the contact force (f_i) in Fig. 1 cannot be directly measured but rather needs to be estimated using proprioceptive sensory data (e.g. joint angles, torques and/or tactile sensors) available from each manipulator.
Other studies also support the persistent effect of HbA1c, showing that the maximum effect on complications is probably not exhibited when a specific HbA1c value is measured, but rather some years later [2], [4], [9], [10], [20].
In the Hauptmann et al. (2009) study, formaldehyde exposure was never measured but rather inferred based on the number of embalming used as a surrogate.
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Whether the coin is fair is not something we directly measure, but rather we have more or less evidence for various degrees of fairness.
In quantum theory, objects like electrons or cats have no definite position or properties before they are observed or measured, but are rather spread out over all space in a cloud of possibility known as a wave function.
Also, investigators may not be interested in measuring phenotypes, but rather measuring the elements of the phenotypes.
The tissue pO2 was not measured directly, but rather was estimated by measuring the retention of [F]fluoroisonidazole, a lipophilic 2-nitroimidazole derivative that is irreversibly bound to intracellular macromolecules under hypoxic, but not normoxic, conditions.
HRQOL is not measured directly but rather indirectly with measurement scales derived from questionnaires.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com