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While high concentrations above 1.5 mg l 1 may cause an endemic disease called dental fluorosis, intake of F− concentrations above 3.0 mg l 1 may cause skeletal fluorosis (Handa 1975; WHO 1984; Vollmer 1993; Ripa 1993).
Exclusion criteria were presence of serious dental or skeletal malformations, patients with a systemic disease, patients undergoing a drug therapy that may cause skeletal abnormalities, patients with agenesis, patients with premature loss of permanent teeth, the presence of malocclusions in the vertical plane, and patients with poor compliance at check-ups.
Large groups of people suffer from fluorosis due to intake of F− concentrations above 1 mg/l which may cause dental fluorosis, stiff and brittle bone/joints, deformities in knees; crippling fluorosis; bones finally paralyzed resulting in inability to walk or stand straight and intake of F− concentrations above 3.0 mg/l which may cause skeletal fluorosis.
Retinoids may cause skeletal toxicity after prolonged administration, resulting in ossification of ligamentous insertions (Pittsley and Yoder, 1983).
In growing children, osteoid osteoma may cause skeletal abnormalities, including overgrowth and angular deformity of the long bone, hypertrophy of the femoral neck with or without increased neck-shaft angle, and increased femoral antetorsion [ 6- 12].
Similar(55)
Our studies suggest that, from the large number of chemicals associated with cigarette smoking, nicotine may cause delayed skeletal growth and, indeed, amniotic fluid and breast milk both have higher concentrations of nicotine than maternal serum does [24].
High F− doses can cause skeletal fluorosis that may result in bone fracture (Boivin et al. 1989).
As the mutations in these genes always cause skeletal dysplasia, we suggest that some novel mutations in EVC2 and EVC may be relevant to the form of mandibular prognathism.
Genetic, environmental, or hormonal factors may cause heterogeneity in skeletal load response.
Fluoride present in concentrations of 1.5 2.0 mg/L in drinking water gives rise to mild dental fluorosis, while values exceeding 2.0 mg/L may cause dental and skeletal fluorosis (WHO 1994).
It is likely that a combination of these mechanisms may cause the loss of skeletal growth in type D corals.
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