Natural capital was considered to include pastures, wildlife, livestock, minerals and vegetation while social capital included networks, gifting, reciprocity, employment, education and wage remittance by relatives.
While beyond the scope of this paper, rural people in the drylands of southern Africa are vulnerable to extreme poverty and appear to be surviving more on wages, remittances, and government transfer payments than on local production.
Combining the two parts of Lemma 3 leads directly to Proposition 2. This proposition shows first that remittances affect E[c2] through an increase in returns to remittances, but also a decrease in the expected wage, since remittances increase the likelihood of migrating back to the country of origin, where wages are on average lower.
Equations 4 and 5 show child labor decreases with an increase in adult wages and remittance income.
Diversification of both poor and wealthy pastoralists may be into farming cf. (Mace 1993), but in ASALs, cropping is commonly so risky and yields so low that only the poorest derive much of their living from farming, with wage labour, remittances and trade (from petty vending to full-fledged businesses) often more salient sources of income (Homewood et al. 2009).
As employment falls in the West, Third World immigrants are losing their jobs and are no longer able to send back the money they save from their wages in remittances to their families, a financial boost that is often crucial in keeping them out of dire poverty.
Though they earn low wages, their remittances forms a crucial part of the Philippine economy.
The expression in E τs p highlights the fact that since returns to savings also become location-specific through differences in prices, their return is, just like wages and remittances, also random ex ante.
Financial capital is made up of available stocks (anything that can be liquidated to meet cash requirements) and regular inflows of cash (income from farm produce sales, wages and remittances from household members working away from the homestead).
Household major source of earnings was recoded into farming, wages, and remittances.
Similarly, older persons who depended on wages and remittances had increased odds of reporting NCDs compared with those who depended on farming.
