Zeldin and Pajares ( 2000) found that women's decision to stay in the STEM pipeline could be attributed to the (vicarious) role models with whom they strongly identified, as well as the powerful social persuasions that came from women's most trusted sources (e.g., a mentor).
Individuals perceived to be at the same ability level are often models of vicarious experience, but models can also be identified based on characteristics such as ethnicity, gender, or access to resources.
Bandura [ 49] emphasized vicarious experiences and modeling as sources of increased self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy develops from mastery experiences, modeling, vicarious experiences, and perceived control (Bandura, 1977; Pajares, 2002).
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) [ 28] has a strong focus on self efficacy and vicarious learning or modelling and thus would imply that the perceived behaviour of others should be considered.
Their study described how vicarious experience and role modelling could enhance self-efficacy and breastfeeding expectations particularly for low-income women, and this experience could be gained by providing access to peer-supporters.
According to the theory, imagery, particularly imagining or visualizing the self engaging in a desired behavior, leads to behavior change because it provides a form of a 'self-model' or vicarious experience, which is central to the development of self-efficacy.
At the same time it is necessary to seek out entrepreneurial role models so that vicarious experience can be obtained.
These training programs included role-playing to provide success experiences (enactive mastery), models of performances (vicarious experiences), coaching and encouragement (verbal persuasion) [ 43].
Bandura also points to the importance of the peer group in strengthening self-confidence through "vicarious" experiences provided by social models.
