The various woody vegetation elements (forest, non-forest, and reclamation woody plants) and land use/cover (LULC) categories were identified.
The study quantitatively confirms that the vegetation elements such as grass, green roofs and trees, improves the thermal comfort at pedestrian level.
Different categories of woodlands (forest, non-forest, and reclamation woody vegetation elements) exhibit various change dynamics due to their different structure and the functions they serve.
This study answers the following research questions: 1) What are the change trajectories of woody vegetation elements at the landscape level?
The three dimensional scour geometry around the simulated vegetation elements was quantified and discussed based on the introduced dimensionless morphometric characteristics.
The primary objective of this paper is to experimentally investigate the scour/deposition patterns around different forms of individual vegetation elements.
True LAI (a dimensionless quantity), which accounts for clumping of vegetation elements at the scale of plants and canopies, was estimated as one half of the total leaf area (m2) in a canopy per unit ground surface area (m2).
We found that wind velocity in the wake of the patch effectively recovered over ∼12 patch heights (h) downwind, which is 2 5 h longer than previously reported recovery lengths for individual vegetation elements and two-dimensional wind fences.
The activity of SRE, MRE and Pp bats was negatively affected by foliage height diversity, indicating that a large scatter of vegetation elements along 3D forest profiles may restrict accessibility for manoeuvrable bats.
Unlike conventional passive optical sensors, these active sensors can capture the vertical vegetation structure by either measuring the range of laser light reflected from vegetation elements and the ground [16, 17], or measuring the radar backscatter and phase at a given wavelength and polarization [15, 18 20].
The thermal-based model, called the Two-Source Energy Balance (TSEB) model solves for the soil/substrate and canopy temperatures that achieves a balance in the radiation and turbulent heat flux exchange with the lower atmosphere for the soil/substrate and vegetation elements.
