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School enrollments in 1900 can explain more than 72 percent of the variation in years of schooling across countries today, as measured by data collected by Robert J. Barro and Jong-Wha Lee; a similar degree of persistence occurs across United States cities. Educated parents and teachers produce educated children; societies that invested in schooling a century ago still generally do so today.
We exploit variation in years since migration and within-family variation.
To identify the model, we exploited within-family variation in years since migration at childbirth, assuming that variation in parental time since migration/spacing between births of siblings is random, conditional on observed or unobserved permanent characteristics at the family level.
The same is true for variance in years of education for mothers: sites where mothers have little variation in years of education will have fewer points for diversity.
In addition, given the variation in years of education among our participants, less literate patients may have encountered more difficulty completing the self-report measures, potentially contributing to response bias.
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The results obtained through this analysis are diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 2 which depicts the distribution of NDSI variation in year 1990 and 2010 in the study area.
Given the large magnitude of these fluxes in Africa, even fairly small (e.g. 20%) variation in year to year total fluxes could translate into annual variation in pyrogenic fluxes of 300 Tg of C or more.
Variation in year-specific estimates highlights the importance of replicating findings in more than one population.
Age-positions ± variations in years are indicated.
Educational attainment has been used as a means for controlling these differences as there are often variations in years of education between African-Americans and Caucasians.
As an example, Figure 1 shows the year-on-year variation in 1-year survival for rectal cancer among men and women in the most affluent and the most deprived groups in England.
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