Off-farm households earned the bulk of their income (including imputed value of subsistence income) from salaries, livestock products, firewood/charcoal and crops, totaling to an average of KShs 76,000 per year (USD 778).
Pastoral household was that household in which 50%% or more of household gross revenue (i.e. the total value of marketed production plus the estimate value of subsistence production consumed within the household) came from livestock or livestock-related activities (Bonfiglioli & Watson (1992)).
The family-budget models reveal the impact of 1) low farm-gate prices set by CAVAGI in the socialist era (1987 in the model); 2) middlemen taking as much as 70%% of the global market price (Cadot et al. 2009; 1997 and 2007 in the model), and 3) transportation costs that lower the value of commercial crops, and raise the value of subsistence rice, particularly in outlying villages.
For the Soqotran pastoralists, the herd is not seen in terms of exchange values but in terms of subsistence security (e.g., milk production for household consumption exclusively, and animals are for occasional, and indeed reluctant, sale to make ends meet).
For example, there is research suggesting that cognition can be affected by methods of subsistence or social values.
The case illustrates both how refugees struggle to recover their livelihoods in contexts of forced displacement and sedentarization in refugee camps and how this struggle is informed by pre-exile modes of subsistence and cultural values.
As refugees' worldviews, beliefs, values, cognition (including knowledge) and social relations are strongly rooted in their pre-exile worlds, their recovery strategies are informed by pre-exile modes of subsistence, social relations, cultural values and adaptive strategies.
These values, taken from Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas [19], roughly correspond to the percent of subsistence due to milk consumption in each population.
The central equation of Marx's analysis is the ratio of surplus value over the subsistence wage portion of value produced, to which latter Marx assigns the rather vague and unsatisfactory label of "variable capital," or "v": hence, s/v.
This indirect remote sensing based prediction of subsistence wood extraction can be applied across large geographical areas using default values for extraction-distance relationships or be locally calibrated depending on the chosen accuracy level for measurement of subsistence extraction under REDD+.
