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To help validate exposure to smoking, exhaled carbon monoxide was also measured (CareFusion MicroCO meter).
Intensive arm IV: Personal sampling on non-pregnant women and men to validate exposure reconstructions performed using time-activity recalls.
As for exposure data gathered by questionnaires, we urge that for the NCS, measurements in environmental or biologic samples be performed to validate exposure assessments.
Although they confirmed agreement of pesticide applications with crop maps, they also recommended biological sampling to validate exposure assumptions for each active ingredient.
In our study, no biomarkers such as cotinine levels or exhaled carbon monoxide were done to validate exposure to tobacco either through self use or environmental exposure [ 24- 28].
In two studies, a GPS data recorder was used to obtain time location data that could be linked with information about environmental exposure to pesticides in children (Elgethun et al. 2003) and used to validate exposure information collected by personal diaries (Phillips et al. 2001).
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The field is currently limited by a lack of longitudinal studies, limited psychometrically validated exposure instruments and poor conceptualisation and definition of racial discrimination.
Due to our study setting, no biospecimen could be obtained for the purpose of validating exposure information.
In order to determine the level of exposure to carcinogenic agents, a previously validated exposure index (occupational exposure index, OEI) was used.
In addition to complex relationships between omic responses and ecological outcome, standardized, validated exposure assay and analysis procedures are lacking (Ankley et al. 2006).
For example, two human epidemiological studies – the Hamburg cohort [ 18] and the Seveso women cohort [ 19] – found an apparent increase of breast cancer incidence with rising dioxin exposure after validating exposure levels using serum levels of dioxin.
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