A plantation using gang labour could produce, on average, 39 percent more output from comparable inputs than could free farms or farms employing non-gang slave labour.
Police are in a state of heightened alert, patrolling Yamaguchi-gumi offices and members' homes and using gang sources to establish who is in and out of favour with the syndicate's leadership.
Smith's seven-year N.B.A. résumé reads like a flashing caution sign: suspensions, benchings, clashes with his coach, traffic accidents and an accusation, in 2009, that he was using gang diction on his Twitter account.
Recent lawsuits allege federal immigration agents have been using gang databases to target undocumented immigrants for deportation, but Krantz said that was never a problem in Portland.
But a recent report by the Asia Foundation, based on interviews with more than 130 gang members, also found that most political parties use gangs.
In the capital, Nairobi, KANU uses gangs of thugs known as Jeshi la Mzee, Swahili for "the old man's army".
The study concluded that Mr. Hoffa's father, James R. Hoffa, worked closely with organized crime to expand his power and to fight employers who often used gang members to break strikes.
Tobacco and coffee cultivation also used gang labour, but cultivation of these crops was less physically demanding than that of sugar and cotton and led to much lower mortality rates than did sugar and rice.
Computer process simulation techniques are employed in this research for the study of different form reuse schemes to use gang forming systems in building construction.
The relationship is symbiotic: The rappers use gang membership to generate revenue, promote and market their music, recruit band members, and provide security at live concerts.
