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These findings will be especially useful for exposure assessments, for example, for tasks related to pollen dispersal and exposure such as co-existence and seed purity [11],[56],[85],[86], and to define buffer zones between GM maize fields and ecologically sensitive areas [41],[41],[41].
The results indicate that GIS can be useful for exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology studies, provided that detailed geographically related exposure data are available for relevant time periods.
Considering the specificity of our models, a cutpoint of 5 µg/L could be useful for exposure classification in an epidemiological risk analysis concerning arsenic levels in water supply in our study area.
Thus, data that would have been useful for exposure assessment were not readily available (e.g., volumes and types of waste actually received at the landfill sites, measurement data for specific chemicals being released into the environment, or the extent of contamination).
For example, wireless-coupled infrared technologies [e.g., radio frequency identification (RFID) chips or sensors) may provide information on updated consumer source inventory or usage, by collecting and transmitting product information via RF spectrum, which would be more accurate and useful for exposure modeling, and without participant burden.
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This type of technique could prove useful for exposures such as cannabis use, where as yet no single strong genetic association (such as that found for tobacco) has been located.
Indeed, integrating information from ground-based temperature monitoring networks and satellite-derived images using a GIS platform can provide useful data for exposure assessments in most urban areas, specifically for the study of heat-related death and illness.
The present study provides further support for MnH as a useful bioindicator for exposure to high Mn levels in water.
Whereas cotinine in umbilical cord blood is a useful indicator for exposure to maternal active and passive smoking (Pichini et al. 2000), in utero biomarkers of toxic effects from cigarette smoke are still lacking.
Slum residence is an imperfect, but nevertheless useful proxy for exposure to urban environmental hazards including infectious disease related to inadequate sanitation and industrial pollution, as well as other quotidian risks exemplified by the collapse of a rain-soaked open rubbish dump that killed some of the residents of Manila's informal settlements in 2000 [ 185, 186].
Data on exposure-related behaviors have been useful for population exposure assessments and program evaluation.
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