The grades range from A, people in upper managerial and professional roles, to E, which includes state pensioners, casual workers and the unemployed receiving state benefits.
There is a good reason why members of the upper managerial elite, which is to say bankers, corporate lawyers, C.E.O.'s, foundation heads and the like, don't usually run for office.
One former Enron executive has described the upper managerial ranks of the company as a "yes-man culture". CFO Andrew Fastow the alleged designer of the off-the-books partnerships that proved central to Enron's downfall was so enamored of Skilling that he reportedly named one of his children after him and hired the architect who designed the CEO's Houston mansion to design his house.
It is within this complicated and ambiguous authority structure, always subject to upheaval, that success and failure are meted out to those in the middle and upper middle managerial ranks.
These include obtaining support of program champions with upper-level managerial authority and 'packaging' projects as ready-for-use products, with ample space and guidelines for adaptation to various and changing contexts and priorities.
It is Mourinho, however, who has had the upper hand in the managerial stakes, having won two Champions Leagues - with Porto in 2004 and Inter in 2010 - and league titles in Portugal, England, Italy and Spain, all carried off with an aura reminiscent of the greats of the past.
Retainer search, which is the space in which Searing has always specialized, is the more elite search space where firms are paid a retainer fee to find the perfect person for the upper echelons of the managerial tree.
Schnepf (2017) for example shows that university dropouts are more likely to hold professional and managerial positions than upper secondary education graduates who never entered higher education in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, and Slovakia, but not in France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the UK.
This is (a) inaccurate, since forty-three per cent of voters from the upper economic echelon — mostly professional or managerial — voted to Leave, and (b) ominous, if you follow the moral logic to its conclusion.
The study by the independent Resolution Foundation, entitled Low Pay Britain 2013, will highlight fears that the return to growth and higher employment is masking an ever-wider divide between people in low-skilled work and those in an upper tier of more stable, skilled, managerial and professional jobs.
An absence of managerial depth in Citigroup's upper tier is hardly a new phenomenon, and some analysts in the past have described it as a convenient survival tool for the bank's chief executives.
