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They "smooth" or improve estimation of an unstable rate by "borrowing" strength from its neighbours [ 4].
As already indicated, the idea for changing the MTP came from the MWG, taking account of the high malaria burden in the country in which the annual clinical malaria incidence showed an unstable rate of 236.1 per 1,000 population in 2004 and 212.4 per 1,000 population in 2007 [ 21].
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Some might argue that the reference population should have been the non-Aboriginal population of BC, but with the indirect standardization method, the comparison is between the observed number or rate in the population of interest (i.e., Aboriginal, a small population with unstable rates) and the expected number or rate in the reference population (a large population with stable rates).
Because the small number of deaths resulted in unstable rates, we operationalized maternal education in two categories.
A shorter time frame may also lead to unstable rates if the number of observations is small.
Regarding age, a ten-year age group interval was used because of the small numbers that a five-year age group would produce resulting in unstable rates.
Generally, small areas have unstable rates and including them in a regression model without taking account of this factor can cause unpredictable bias.
Nevertheless, the overall 22 years community based neonatal mortality curve showed a series of unstable rates - the confidence intervals around each rate are wide and overlaps each other and where the pattern over time is quite jagged.
Since the yearly trends of neonatal mortality showed a series of unstable rates, the confidence intervals around each rate was very wide and crossover each other, the pattern over time is quite jagged so it is very difficult to meaningfully interpret the yearly mortality rate.
However, the Northern Region study included less than one tenth the number of cases in the present study and variations in rates with respect to diagnostic sub-groups are probably due to the very small numbers resulting in unstable rates for a number of the groups.
The game engine is crippled by this ambition and suffers from numerous glitches and an unstable frame rate that smacks of an unfinished product.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com