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Indeed, if one of the groups had had a higher propensity to mate, it would presumably have 'lost' the most numerous (mated) females to the 'undetermined pheromone type' category, and hence ended up with the most strongly underestimated mating success, thereby possibly preventing us from detecting an existing difference.
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It appears that the model (1) overestimated the highest ranking males' ability to mate guard females and (2) underestimated the importance of female mate choice and male alternative reproductive strategies on paternity distribution.
Hoffmann [ 63] showed that heritability estimates for mating behaviour may be underestimated if they are based on single events; they can be much higher when several mating events are taken into account.
Finn insisted that he and his team-mates had not underestimated Australia, who began this series as most judges' second favourites, having been thrashed 4-0 Indiadia over the winter after England had beaten the same opposition 2-1.
Such studies may easily have underestimated male age effects in extrapair mating systems.
The only situation where increased outcrossing performance will not be underestimated is if there was assortative mating within the experimental populations.
Nevertheless, the value of male immigrants may have been underestimated in species with suitable polyandrous mating systems: our results suggest that males can restore fitness more efficiently than females in the short term, compared to purely inbred populations.
Therefore, the PoA model not only overestimated reproductive success of high-ranking males in our study, but also their mating access to females, while it underestimated that of middle- and low-ranking males.
However, recent evidence suggests that the importance of male mate choice has been underestimated [7].
Some studies suggest that reptiles may exhibit increases in energetic expenditure for a longer duration (>10 mins) following the termination of activity [26]; thus it is possible that our conservative estimate of mate choice underestimates the proportion of total energetic expenditure due to mate choice and other locomotory events.
Any naïveté — the day he was nominated by the party, he did not realize he could pick his running mate — was dwarfed by his often underestimated instincts.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com