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To uncover students' initial status of Twitter use and their expectations, a pretest was administered before the lessons started.
Finally, in both the pilot and the iteration study, a posttest was administered mid-January after the oral exam to uncover students' final evaluations about using Twitter in higher education.
This information can support ongoing research into how two-tier items uncover students' understanding and reasoning, and provide further guidance on ways to aggregate information from two-tier items into diagnostic and formative information for teachers.
A large body of research across contexts has applied two-tier items to uncover students' understanding of scientific concepts as broad ranging as optics, scientific reasoning, and scientific knowledge integration and in various settings such as the US, UK, Korea, Singapore, and Australia (Chu and Treagust 2009; Johnson and Tymms 2011; Liu et al. 2011; Taber and Tan 2011; Tsui and Treagust 2009).
The two tiers in two-tier items act together to uncover students' understanding of core concepts because the student must choose a seemingly "factual" knowledge response for the first tier (Taber and Tan 2011), and then choose for the second tier what reasoning about the concept they used to arrive at the first-tier response.
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Mr. Bruster said he himself was a skeptic until he read Mr. Vickers's 2012 article, which presented voluminous circumstantial historical evidence alongside linguistic patterns unearthed by software designed to uncover student plagiarism.
Bishop and Anderson (1986, 1990) and Wilson (2001) previously administered questionnaires that sought to uncover student misconceptions about science and evolution.
It is important to note, however, that student response patterns may not always mirror cognitive processes, and our interpretations are constrained by the methods we used to uncover student thinking and the sample that we studied.
This qualitative method has been used by others in the DBER field to uncover student conceptions about a particular phenomenon.
A foundational tenet of our work is that writing is a powerful way to uncover student thinking.
This report is centered on three research questions: 1) How well does lexical analysis of student writing uncover student mental models?
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com