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The VAT effect alone can be calculated as 3.85 0.56 = 3.3 gCO2/km by the type approval test.
This difference corresponds to roughly 2.5 3 ml/km lesser fuel consumption by the type approval test.
The CO2 component is negative (as of 2014) for vehicles emitting less than 105 gCO2/km by the type approval test.
For a car running 200,000 km before scrapping, the total fuel savings are 7 800 l over the vehicle's lifetime, when considering that the real-world, on-the-road fuel consumption of the 2014 cohort of cars is about 40%% higher than according to the EU type approval test [11].
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Based on the particle properties and results from health effect studies, requirements to metrics, and measurement systems, for example, for type approval testing, are discussed.
The type approval testing of PV-modules according to the IEC standards takes water into account by means of the so called Damp-Heat test and the Frost-Thaw test.
The test-conditions were designed long time ago and initially meant to reflect the service life of a module, but the type approval testing is not applicable for prediction of long-term durability behaviour, but a qualification test for the assurance of a minimum quality level.
This paper demonstrates that a conventional vehicle can emit more on the road than during type approval tests while the reverse can be true for hybrids.
It has been argued [1] that type approval tests do not represent the reality of emission in cities and therefore such results do not quantify the real benefits a hybrid vehicle can give.
Hybrid technology is seen by many as a potential solution to reduce vehicle emissions in cities. However type approval tests of hybrid vehicles measure emission levels comparable to those of conventional cars in the same market segment.
In Norway, the government has set a CO2 target of maximally 85 g/km emitted, according to the NEDC type approval tests, from new cars sold in 2020 on average.
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