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Since the "true causality" issue is deeply philosophical, econometricians assert that the Granger test finds only "predictive causality" [38].
If true, we would find high correlations between CSW and HIV and yet no true causality as both are being caused by the third factor.
Again, the combination immunosuppressive therapy makes it difficult to assess true causality.
As a limitation, we have to emphasize that Granger causality is not true causality.
The harmonic Granger causality was not sensitive to these phase effects and produces more accurate estimate of the true causality.
Although these data do not demonstrate true causality, data from animal models do demonstrate a direct role of capillarization in determining insulin sensitivity.
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Heuristic models can be very good in predicting observations, but true understanding grows only when models reflect true causalities.
Second, because of high linkage disequilibrium in the HLA region, true causalities of diseases and drug adverse effects including regulatory variants can not be identified unless phase-defined complete gene sequence and HLA haplotype structure are achieved.
A limitation of our study is that we cannot completely rule out endogeneity and reverse causality and therefore do not identify a true causal effect.
Second, the study was cross-sectional, limiting conclusions regarding causality; a longitudinal design is required to understand the true causal nature of the relationship between risk and protective factors and adjustment.
CG methylation was inversely correlated with the transcriptional activity of the P2 promoter in mononuclear blood cells and in transfection experiments, suggesting that the observed association of methylation with the studied traits reflects true biological causality.
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