In addition, recently it has been shown that miR-21 antagonism blocks endothelial mesenchymal transition in TGF-beta-treated endothelial cells as well as in vivo in a cardiac hypertrophy model resulting in reduced fibrosis development (Kumarswamy et al, 2011).
55, 67 They could also originate from the underlying media through an endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition, in which SMCs would transit from media to intima while losing their contractile phenotype.
Several studies from different laboratories demonstrate that high glucose mediates endothelial cell to chondrocyte transition in human aortic tissue, and selectively triggers apoptosis in cultured endothelial cells [ 15, 19].
Further evidence is provided by Kalluri and colleagues [22] in which effective doses of 1000 ng/ml of BMP-7 were required to inhibit endothelial-mesenchymal transition in the heart.
In addition to the activation of residential fibroblasts, other important sources of fibroblasts have been proposed such as pericytes, fibrocytes, and fibroblasts originated from epithelial mesenchymal transition, endothelial mesenchymal transition.
Myofibroblasts have been thought to be a heterogeneous population [ 7] composed of resident fibroblasts in the perivascular area [ 50], epithelial cells (by epithelial-mesenchymal transition) [ 51], endothelial cells (by endothelial-mesenchymal transition) [ 52], mesothelial cells [ 53], and circulating fibrocytes derived from bone marrow [ 54, 55].
Furthermore, Kanasaki et al. have recently reported that linagliptin inhibited the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in type 1 diabetic mouse kidney, independent of the glucose-lowering effect [ 37].
Canonical Wnt signaling has been shown to be important for EndMT during embryonic valve development (Liebner et al., 2004), but whether Wnt signaling plays a role in mesenchymal transition of adult endothelial cells has not been addressed.
Endothelial progenitor cells appear to be involved in endothelial recovery after injury.
Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) have been the most commonly used model in endothelial dysfunction systems.
