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We included several known confounders of function and pain outcomes to reduce confounding bias, but the cohort study design raises the possibility of residual confounding bias.
Due to selection bias, propensity score matching was used to reduce confounding from differences in the patients' baseline characteristics.
All reactions were run in duplicate to reduce confounding variance [36].
17 Matching is a technique used to reduce confounding.
However, we matched on age, sex, and residential zone to reduce confounding bias.
We used a structured multistep process to diagnose dementia, and those with dementia were excluded from analyses to reduce confounding.
Thirdly, we have performed multivariate logistic regression and adjusted for interactions between variables, as is recommended to reduce confounding.
However, a large number of individual-level and some neighborhood-level covariates were available for inclusion in the statistical models to reduce confounding.
Because the samples differed significantly in terms of age and education, we calculated age and education standardized estimates from CHIS to reduce confounding.
The study population should be large and homogeneous regarding socio-economic factors (e.g. including only blue-collar workers) to reduce confounding from socio-economic factors.
Clearly, all of these factors should be examined in future studies on vitamin D and health, including RCTs, to reduce confounding.
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