In other species in which offspring of older males have lower fitness [e.g. Drosophila 11], [45], we might expect females to evolve preferences for younger males, or at a minimum, to avoid mating with older males.
Using these life cycle equations, I first used numerical simulations (run in Matlab) to confirm that it was possible to evolve preferences despite competitive costs.
On the one hand, if there is high variation in the quality of single males, females are expected to evolve preferences for certain male traits that serve as 'honest signals' for male quality [ 3].
In fact, there are a range of parameters for which strand displacement can evolve preference for replicase production.
In the case of malaria, gene drive strategies may represent particularly effective solutions to the emerging problem of mosquito vectors with an evolved preference to bite and rest outdoors, traits that render them resistant to current control strategies based on indoor insecticide spraying and bednets.
For example, Intuit might offer to screen commercial Internet messages, weeding out "junk" E-mail while reordering the remaining messages according to customers' evolving preferences.
This increased indirect selection can then allow preferences to evolve when multiple preferences are present even though costs do prevent their evolution when only a single preference is present.
An evolved preference for helping behaviour in mates is predicted to arise when parents need to cooperate to raise offspring successfully.
In fact, Wilson himself argues that humans have an evolved preference for open savanna.
And in some, the decisions have been aesthetic presumably reflecting an evolved preference in the human psyche for objects that look natural.Growing goodsAn excellent example of deliberately copying nature is an artificial hip made by Materialise, a Belgian firm.
