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13 14 Different epidemiological approaches can be used to help identify causal effects of prenatal exposures including comparisons of maternal paternal effects and of effects associated with different timings of exposure.
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Typically, in experimental settings or in clinical settings, the time of measurement, the dose of exposure, and the timing of exposure are well controlled.
Thus, the observed 4-day time lag in our study is consistent with the expected timing of exposure.
Such precision may not be relevant for exposures that are continuous, but the timing of exposure assessment may affect greatly the measured values for time-varying exposures.
Cortisol inhibition of placental cytokine production was dependent on timing of exposure, fetal sex and presence and absence of asthma.
Hyndman et al. [34] examined the effects of differential timing of exposure with E2 on a range of fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) biomarkers in a laboratory study.
The timing of exposure, inoculum size, immune status of the infant, and virulence of the causative agent influence the clinical expression of neonatal sepsis.
In my own career as an environmental health scientist, I have been very concerned about studies suggesting that the timing of exposure to such risk factors may amplify the risk.
We did not detect significant effect measure modification for timing of exposure.
[23] We therefore performed stratified analyses according to different timing of exposure and gender.
The hypothesis that timing of exposure may influence epigenetic mechanisms requires further investigation.
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