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However, the calculated Pn travel times were shorter than the ones observed in this model, and the offsets of 30 40 km where the Pn appears as a first arrival on the observed record sections are smaller than those in the observed data.
Proxy time series are generated by sampling the climate model data for sets of equal length to the observed record.
We chose values of the second-largest maximum intensity and second-longest MHWs from the observed record of the SEAus region against which to make the attribution statement.
Comparing the modelled monthly rainfall totals with the observed record allows the rank risk curve to be plotted (Fig. 4, red curve).
"We did that by comparing climate models simulations with the observed record," says Stott. "We had climate change models that included greenhouse gas emissions and then other simulations that didn't.
Let T denotes the reconstructed temperature and TCRU the observed temperature, assuming that the observed record only falls at the tail of the empirical distribution of the 1000 ensemble members.
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If you omit the observed records, keeping CO2 levels at pre-industrial levels, then none show a decline of ice cover.
They "occur pretty commonly in the observed records," and there are climate models showing "a hiatus as long as 15 years".
Two estimation methods are used: 1) minimizing the squared difference between the observed records and the modeled biological frontier and 2) using extreme value theory to estimate the biological frontier that maximizes the probability of observing the existing world records by age.
Three subevents were placed on the fault plane considering the characteristics of the observed records.
We apply the same band-pass filter to both the synthetics and the observed records.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com