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P values for the mixed-effects models were obtained by likelihood ratio tests of the model with the effect in question against the model without the effect in question.
But the effect in question may be either proximate (prochain) or remote (éloigné).
Imagine that a certain substance s comes to possess P, and that until s acquires P the chance of the effect in question is very low.
In most instances, however, it is only the final event that is most noticeable to the person involved, and is routinely considered as the 'unique cause' of the effect in question (Rothman and Greenland 2005).
Furthermore, if God's creative activity doesn't guarantee uniqueness, that could only be because that activity is not metaphysically sufficient to produce the effect in question, or some sort of overdetermination is left open.
A second proposal offers a regularity account of constitutive relevance modeled on Mackie's notion of understanding a cause as an INUS condition: an Insufficient but Non-redundant part of an Unnecessary but Sufficient condition for the effect in question (Mackie 1974; see also Cummins 1983).
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The results should be useful for understanding the effects in question in a broader perspective than is possible with specific systems, for calculating effects for specific systems using well-defined formulas, and for possibly designing systems that display prescribed characteristics in the presence of HF excitation.
These can lead to a confounding bias, causing an over- or underestimation of the effects in question.
Villar [ 35], in a study of 84 independent meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials, showed that in meta-analyses where there was a significant value of the Q statistic, the use of random effects models showed wider confidence intervals for the effects in question, but also showed a larger treatment effect.
To relate the biomonitoring measurement to a health outcome, other required information may include population susceptibility factors, plausible mechanism of toxicity, and information on whether the exposure evaluated preceded the development of the health effect in question.
In other words, epidemiologists strive to identify both the risk factors for, and the causal mechanisms behind, the health effect in question.
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