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Moreover, there is controversy over the psychological effects of single parenthood, particularly over the causality underlying certain correlations: for instance, are children of divorce unhappier due to divorce itself, or to the high-conflict marriage preceding it?
The causality, underlying mechanisms, and whether low serum amylase is a valuable marker for these states remain to be elucidated.
Second, although this is a longitudinal study, we can prove only that associations exist, but it is not possible to establish the causality underlying them.
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This study aims to identify the biophysical and socio-economic factors that significantly affect land degradation across Vietnam and to interpret the causalities underlying the effects.
Further longitudinal studies are thus advocated to clarify the causalities underlying the observed associations between diffusion parameters, obesity markers, and sex.
Since several covariates (e.g., mental and physical health status) could be considered both causes and effects of food insecurity, longitudinal or randomized intervention studies will be critical to clarify the direction of causality underlying the relationships among these variables.
Less clear is the direction of causality underlying the association of overweight and obesity with reduced active travel and with higher car ownership: causal effects in both directions seem plausible and longitudinal data are therefore required to establish their relative magnitudes.
Undertaking longitudinal studies is a priority to establish definitively the direction of causality underlying these associations.
The cross-sectional nature of our study does not allow us to disentangle the direction of causality underlying these associations.
Although further longitudinal analysis is warranted to clarify the direction of causality underlying some of these associations, this work highlights that 'co-benefits' [ 15] cannot be assumed.
As this was a cross-sectional study, causality underlying associations cannot be assumed.
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