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But economists say this is the first time computers have been flexible enough to automate a broad range of skills, including cognitive ones, that previously required complex interaction with people.
Many procedures that previously required a laparotomy are now done by laparoscopy.
They deal with tubes, catheters, dialysis ports and other complicated medical devices that previously required something akin to training; they change the dressings on wounds, administer injections, test vital signs and perform personal hygiene tasks for their patients.
Assays that previously required multiple platforms, or which were simply not available, now can be performed from a single sequencing data set; e.g. transcript quantitation, isoform identification, alternative splicing and transcription start sites, allele-specific transcription, and discovery of novel transcripts.
There are also new direct flights replacing connections that previously required stops or plane changes.
With a smartphone in their pocket, individuals can suddenly do things that previously required an array of institutions.
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Moreover, FASTLSA replaces a computationally intensive permutation test that was previously required to calculate significance of LSA statistics with a dramatic increase on the size of datasets that can be analyzed on a single desktop machine.
For instance, he was only a graduate student at the University of California at Berkeley when, in the late 1970's, he found a new approach to a theorem that had previously required a long, complicated proof.
It would be a race against time before those supporters found other hiding places, so a group of interrogators was given greater latitude to use tactics on the new prisoners that had previously required the signed approval of senior officers, said military intelligence soldiers who asked to remain unidentified for fear of harming their careers.
It gives them a way to query data that had previously required deep technical knowledge.
The new system requires just 51 votes to advance most nominees, instead of the 60 votes that were previously required.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com