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Further experimentation is needed to test causation between altered muscle metabolism and age-related muscle atrophy.
Corroboration is now required from further studies, especially experimental studies to test causation rather than just association.
However, this was a cross-sectional study that cannot test causation, and is thus not possible to ascertain whether reduced knee flexion when landing, is a cause, or effect of, knee injury.
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Another interesting personal experience was in trying to test formative causation proposed by Sheldrake (1987).
Furthermore, argued that because the aim of the formulation of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was to test simple causation, from the outset it failed to test Whorf's ideas.
Importantly for A. nidulans mutant screens, this is a manageable number of candidate mutations to test for causation of the selected phenotype when combined with the power of haploidization and/or meiotic mapping, or with bulk segregant analysis.
I test this ecological causation hypothesis by providing data on specific leaf area (sla) and water use efficiency (δ 13C) of leaves from males and females of several Leucadendron species.
My test of formative causation was to have students learn random sequences of letters, test the students, provide a second set of randomly sequenced letters half of which had been learned before and half unseen sequences, and test again to see if recall on previously learned sequences was better than sequences learned only once.
Also in this subset of the study population, we conducted a direct test of reverse causation for the association between postpartum depression and height outcomes at age 3: we examined whether length at birth predicted postpartum depression, controlling for maternal age, race/ethnicity, height, pregnancy weight gain, household income, and child gender.
To test the social causation hypothesis, associations between baseline adult employment grade and changes in adult cardiometabolic factors over 10 years (from phase 3 to phase 7) were examined using logistic regression analysis and analysis of variance as appropriate.
As a test of reverse causation, we performed a logistic regression on diabetes status at baseline as a predictor of antidepressant use at follow-up among participants not on antidepressant treatment at baseline.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com