Also, by government guidelines, the number of people covered by a programme often serves as a surrogate for impact, which can be unsatisfactory.
Guidelines have been used as surrogate decision impact parameters in cost-effectiveness studies of diagnostics early in their development or diffusion when use is fairly limited [ 29].
It is unclear how reductions in these surrogate endpoints impact on subsequent mosquito-to-vertebrate transmission and, consequently, the number of new malaria infections or the reproductive number (R o).
Phasing using consensus information from many surrogates reduces the impact of any individual surrogate.
These indicators, though welcome to some extent because of their directness, are at best only surrogate measures of impact.
Even trials designed to impact surrogate endpoints, such as regression of LVH or LV dilatation, have been disappointing.
The human capital approach considers the value of lost productivity as a result of disability and premature death, using lost earnings as a surrogate for the impact that premature death and disability had on individuals and society [ 18].
The potential for surrogate outcomes to impact on healthcare policy making and the consequent diffusion of treatments into practice is shown by the fact that 27% of the randomised clinical trials identified during the two year study period reported surrogate primary outcomes.
We modelled a range of zero-emissions energy scenarios across nations that were designed to meet projected final energy demand in 2060, and optimised to derive the best globally aggregated results in terms of minimising costs and land use (a surrogate for environmental impacts).
Specifically, in the beef feedlot industry, the resistance in Escherichia coli has often been assumed to be a reasonable surrogate for pathogens impacting cattle and people.
