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A separable Hamiltonian can always be transformed into a sum of separate Hamiltonians with one element in the sum corresponding to each subsystem.
This suggests the following definition for the fractional sum corresponding to the fractional difference with discrete Mittag-Leffler function kernel.
The first term of the sum, corresponding to w=d min, is also known as the "error floor".
Then for any integer a with ( a, p ) = 1, we have the identity C ( a, p ) = − 1 π 2 ( p − 1 ) ∑ χ mod p χ ( − 1 ) = − 1 χ ¯ ( a ) τ 2 L 2 ( 1, χ ¯ ), where χ runs through the Dirichlet characters modp with χ ( − 1 ) = − 1, and τ = ∑ a = 1 p − 1 χ ( a ) e ( a p ) denotes the classical Gauss sum corresponding to χ. Proof See reference [11].
FC measures the effective separation between normal random variables X ∼ n (μ1 σ1) and Y ∼ n (μ2 σ2) using the following measuref ([ 20, 21]): (16) FC (X, Y ) = | μ 1 − μ 2 | σ 1 2 + σ 2 2. We use FC to measure the separability of the distance sum corresponding to the true split (which should be the minimal sum for consistent SR functions) from the two remaining sums.
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For each department, all the 32 phantoms were simulated and the results were summed corresponding to each department's method of gating, i.e. if 8 or 16 gates were used.
Particle sums corresponding to each of these total exposures were then added to the empty area corresponding to the movie sum they were extracted from.
In this manner, Ki values for every branch were determined and the number of substitutions in a pair of alleles was obtained by summing corresponding branches.
These were then extracted from movie sums corresponding to 12.6 e−/Å, 19.6 e−/Å, and 53 e−/Å weighted with the exposure filter.
Particle sums corresponding to 12.6 e−/Å, 19.6 e−/Å, and the total sum of 53 e−/Å were calculated, along with particle sums for the whole 53 e−/Å weighted with the exposure filter.
Then one run of the method involves only summing corresponding pre-calculated values for all 20 amino acids, and for a given alignment of ~100 sequences of length ~400 aa it takes approximately 50 ms (AMD Athlon™ 64 Processor 3800+).
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com