We adopted the approach by Kafadar (1996) but modified it to account for variation between urban or suburban population densities within a given district in Hong Kong (Table 1).
We conducted an experiment in a heavily impacted suburban habitat (population density of ~ 2700 humans/km2700
Cayuga and Wayne Counties are predominantly rural-suburban, with population densities of 46 and 60 persons/km, respectively.
Monroe and Onondaga Counties encompass the cities of Rochester and Syracuse and are predominantly urban-suburban with population densities of 422 and 232 persons/km, respectively.
There are 16 districts in Beijing, which are divided into urban and suburban districts based on population density.
A variable based on the post code of each care home was created to reflect location in an urban (high population density), suburban or rural (low density) area.
This aligns with the findings of Apparicio [ 16] and McGrail [ 21], who found that most accessibility problems occur in suburban areas, with low population density and mostly non-residential land use.
Each geographical unit was then classified as urban, suburban, or rural, based on its population density, using Statistics Canada's definition of suburban neighbourhood as a Census area with an average population density between 150 and 400 persons per square kilometre [ 28].
The study sample was chosen to maximize geographic diversity and variation in population density (rural, suburban, and urban) as well as diversity in terms of provider types (center-based, home-based) and role (center director, direct provider).
The population density in suburban areas is lower and these areas are more mountainous, thus it is harder to provide the same service to suburban residents, especially with home visits included.
Baseline demographic characteristics examined included age, sex, geographic region (Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, and West), population density (urban, suburban, and rural), race/ethnicity (White, Black, Hispanic, and other), and plan characteristics [low income subsidy (LIS) status and dual eligibility for Medicare and Medicaid].
