The nature of the substrate and soil under and around the houses and the number of stories in each structure were recorded.
Surface modification reduced the adhesive interaction between the substrate and soil, to the extent that surface energies of 22 26 mN/m resulted in simple detachment of the deposit from the surface.
We therefore chose a suite of experimental approaches that spanned from inert-substrate and soil cultures in controlled glasshouse conditions to field-grown sugarcane for assessment of nitrate and ammonium uptake when supplied simultaneously.
We sampled using 0.15 × 0.15 m quadrats because the use of soil cores was not possible on the karst substrate, and soil, when present, rarely exceeded 6 cm in depth.
Roof age had positive relationship with soil organic content (Corg), and negative relationships with substrate depth and soil pH.
In their mounds, ants not only directly produce CO2 by respiration, but may also indirectly impact soil greenhouse gas emissions by affecting substrate availability and soil physicochemical characteristics.
Below 900 m, much of the region is deforested, persisting as a spatially complex mosaic of grassland, bare substrate (rock and soil) and patches of woody vegetation protected by local-scale terrain variation (e.g., gullies, steep slopes, etc).
Below 900 m, much of the region is deforested, persisting as a spatially complex mosaic of grassland, bare substrate (rock and soil) and patches of woody vegetation protected by local-scale terrain variation (e.g., gullies, steep slopes, etc).
The seeds were germinated in substrates of sand and soil (3:1) in a greenhouse illuminated with natural sunlight (day/night ≈ 14 h/10 h; daily temperature 25 ~ 30°C).
After manual removal, we used a torch to sterilize the substrate and surrounding soil associated with each latrine (Technical Appendix).
