An increase in protein synthesis (including production of heat shock proteins, HSPs) has also been noted in L. elliptica in response to another stressor, temperature [39], [40], [57].
The magnitude of the HSP70 up-regulation we observed is in line with experimental observations of the heat shock response (HSR [64]) in L. elliptica in response to the more classically studied stressor, temperature.
These studies have largely investigated adaptation to a single stressor (temperature: Meyer et al. 2009; Kelly et al. 2012; Clark et al. 2013; acidification: Sunday et al. 2011; Kelly et al. 2013; Pespeni et al. 2013; Sunday et al. 2014) with three studies investigating the response to both stressors concurrently (Pistevos et al. 2011; Foo et al. 2012; Durrant et al. 2013).
As shown for these species, single-stressor temperature or acidification studies can be misleading with respect to determining species' vulnerability and responses to global change.
Among the large number of stressors temperature is considered a particularly important one, because variable thermal environments are common and may pose substantial challenges for individual survival and reproduction [4] [8].
However, Symbiodinium clade D was also more abundant than other clades at site 5, which is situated approximately 3 km from the stream outlet where there is no indication of environmental stressors (temperature, salinity, sedimentation) that are harmful to corals (Palmer et al. unpubl. data).
Herein, we provide an extensive review of the conceptual background and current state of knowledge surrounding infectious disease impacts on wild salmon populations, and the potential interplay between two additional stressors, temperature, and predators, which may associate with salmon declines and influence or be influenced by infectious disease.
The ESR was identified by Brown and colleagues where a commonly responding set of genes (~900) was modulated upon exposure to a wide variety of environmental stressors including temperature shock, hydrogen peroxide and hyper- and hypo-osmotic shock [ 15].
Many studies have reported that exposure of organisms to such diverse stressors as temperature extremes, pollutants, anoxia, parasitism, predation, or competition; all elicit reversible increases in Hsp70 expression that serve to protect the organism against cellular damage [ 6- 9].
Organisms exposed to different environmental stressors, including temperature changes, trace metals and ultraviolet light, respond by rapidly synthesising a suite of highly conserved proteins called heat shock or stress proteins.
Not long ago it was shown also that isolated hepatocytes of the winter lamprey were highly tolerant to exposure with different metabolic inhibitors, such as rotenone, antimycin A, and oligomycin, and their viability in the presence of these stressors are temperature- and pH-dependent [ 13].
