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We examined whether a series of demographic processes, including probabilities of remaining at a specific wintering site, over-winter and annual apparent survival, winter stopover duration, and abundance varied among oiled and unoiled habitats.
While a number of studies indeed demonstrated the effects of predators on body mass, stopover duration and site usage [27], [28], some of the results are difficult to interpret [29], and others even deny at least some of the suggested effects of predation danger [30].
Furthermore, we found that arrival at the breeding sites was related to stopover duration, i.e. individuals that stayed shorter at stopover sites also arrived earlier at their breeding sites, regardless of total migration duration.
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Extreme migrations often involve extreme adaptations of high fuel deposition, water conservation, and respiratory physiology, as well as behavioral adjustments in flight times, flight altitudes, stopover frequency and duration, and resting or feeding behavior.
Recently, an increasing number of Barnacle geese breeding in the Russian Arctic have delayed their departure from their wintering site in the Netherlands by approximately one month and have reduced their staging duration at stopover sites in the Baltic accordingly.
Timing, durations, flyways, stopover areas and other ecological aspects of migration are better understood thanks to a growing number of new tracking techniques.
The exact locations of the meetings, and the duration of the stopover, have yet to be announced.
Also ensure that the duration of the stopover is no longer than 5 hours.
The geese reduced their staging duration in the next stopover area in the Baltic (traditionally used by the entire population) according to the delay from the Netherlands, such that some migrants virtually skip the Baltic stopover site altogether [7], [8].
More details of these processes, and those governing flight duration, flight mechanics and stopover behavior, are provided in the Appendix.
However, these stopovers are typically very short in duration (2 3 days), and they do not occur in an environment where exposure is likely to occur, with the possible exception of sandfly bites.
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