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Coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) and the left ventricular pressure (LVP) were continuously monitored and the electro-field stimulation (EFS) was applied to stimulate sympathetic nerve terminals.
The passive movement applied in our study probably did not activate the exercise pressor reflex, activated by muscular ergoreceptors, which generally stimulate sympathetic autonomic activity, generating cardiovascular alterations [33].
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the brain has been shown to stimulate sympathetic activity, leading to elevations of blood pressure, heart rate and plasma catecholamine levels and neuronal activation of the sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla.
Insulin is a centrally acting hormone and is known to stimulate sympathetic nerve activity [ 39].
In addition, insulin was shown to stimulate sympathetic nerve outflow which might also counter the vasodilatory effects of NO-mediated vasodilation.
Since cocaine is known to acutely stimulate sympathetic activity (71,72), one may speculate whether regular cocaine use sensitizes the sympathetic system, rendering individuals more susceptible to psychological or physiological arousal (73,74) and thereby facilitates the secretion of salivary innate immune responses (75).
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High prolactin levels stimulating sympathetic tonus cause preeclempsia in pregnancy [49].
Furthermore, it stimulates sympathetic activation and aldosterone release, adding to vasoconstriction and endothelial dysfunction.
Thus, the repetitive EA pretreatment may also achieve the cardioprotective effects via stimulating sympathetic nervous system and β1-AR.
This finding indicates that the regulation of gene expression in ING up to 10 days of age was not affected by the 17°C ambient temperature that should have stimulated sympathetic activity.
Caffeine and nicotine are both stimulants, meaning these substances stimulate the sympathetic nervous system resulting in an increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and an increase in blood pressure.
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