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Recall that Axiom 1 refers to the long run; thus, all the statements of Laws 1 6 are statements about the long-run dynamics.
Most empiricists agreed that S would have to include statements of laws of nature, while some thought that it would have to include statements of singular causation.
By dispensing with causes and amplifying the explanatory value and empirical justification of statements of laws, Reid's account is regarded as a forerunner to a deductive-nomological model of explanation.
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Joseph Raz rejected Hart's claim that normative terms have a distinctive meaning in statements of law.
Determinism is a claim about the relation of entailment that holds between, on the one hand, statements of law and statements of particular fact at a time, and, on the other hand, statements of particular fact at any later time.
Statements of law that use abstract expressions certainly are vague in the philosophers' sense: they appear to be susceptible to sorites reasoning.
One must make do with concepts that are only partially defined and which fit in only ill-determined ways with other such concepts in statements of "law" in sociology.
Instead of opposing the misconception that the language of the law can be meaningful only if lawyers share criteria for the truth of statements of law, Dworkin could oppose the misconception that the members of a community can make legal judgments only if they share uncontroversial tests of legal validity that exhaust the grounds on which such judgments are legally justified.
Determinism is a thesis about the statements of law that correctly describe our world; it says nothing about whether these statements are knowable by finite beings, let alone whether they could, even in principle, be used to predict all future events.
It succeeds because it shows that Hart's theory cannot explain what makes a statement of law true or false.
Hart initially thought that that approach would necessarily lead to an extreme sort of natural law theory, in which every true statement of law is also a true moral statement, and every valid legal obligation is necessarily a moral obligation.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com