In addition to allowing for the co-segregation of adaptive variation within species, supergenes may facilitate the spread of complex phenotypes across species boundaries.
Our flow cytometric measurements indicated that there is a spread of fluorescence phenotypes of one to three orders of magnitude, due to the highly heterogeneous nature of the cell populations under investigation.
The resistance is largely due to the acquisition of plasmids carrying drug-resistant as well as pathogenic genes, and its conjugal transfer facilitates the spread of resistant phenotypes.
The great diversity of mutations that can thus be favored during oncogenic selection apparently allows genomic instability to be favored during oncogenesis (e.g., through the spread of mutator phenotypes).
In the following sections, we will overview the impact of stochastic disturbances on social enforcement mechanisms at different biological scales and discuss how they may influence the spread of cheater phenotypes.
Thus, autophagy suppression specifically in Pars Intercerebralis is obviously not sufficient for the observed non-cell autonomous spreading of synaptic phenotypes and a subsequent defect in memory formation.
We first asked whether modulations of fast synaptic neurotransmission of MB neurons might per se be able to provoke a brain-wide spreading of synaptic phenotypes similarly as observed after MB-specific attenuation of autophagy.
Gene flow correlates with the spread of epidemiologically relevant phenotypes among parasite and vector populations (e.g., virulence, drug and pesticide resistance), as well as invasion and re-invasion risk where parasite transmission is absent due to current or past intervention measures.
The selected 16 hydrolysates contain all six biomass types and all four biomass pretreatment methods (Table 1), and the fermentability of these selected hydrolysates show a more or less even spread of the fermentation phenotypes (Additional file 2).
Therefore, it would not be surprising that this transmission manner would more readily link beneficial pesticide-degrading bacteria to their hosts, enhancing increase of both partners and therefore spread of the resistance phenotype.
