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Even when paleontological occurrence records are available, they only define minimum geographic ranges, as the fossil record is unlikely to capture completely the entire geographic range of the species (parallel issues also affect neontological occurrence records, but they will generally be much less severe).
For instance, one proposed distinction between parallelism and convergence focuses on the starting points for the two lineages: whether similar (closely related species, parallel) or different (distantly related species, convergent).
Parallel clines at the same genetic loci are expected if adaptation involves either genetic variants predating the split between the trout species, parallel mutation, or genetic variants historically associated with S. trutta, which were spread outside the Rhine system through stocking and subsequently recruited for altitudinal adaptation.
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The rationale for immunization in these species parallels that for human and companion animals; to decrease the incidence of disease.
The wide variability in M-Carn or M-HCD between species parallels the periodical demand for anaerobic exercise, or tolerance to imposed hypoxic conditions (Abe 2000).
The assembled genome sequence of an individual will also be only one representation of the total variation present in a species (paralleling the use of 'type specimens' for taxonomic classification).
Previous studies indicated that there were accelerated amino acid substitutions during both the origin of Hominidae's ancestor and of our own species, paralleling the two brain enlargements [ 12], suggesting that the amino acid substitutions of MCPH1 were probably adaptive and may have contributed to the brain expansion during primate evolution.
Since the therapeutic effects of hawthorn preparations appear to be mediated by the metabolome (notably, phenolic compounds; Edwards et al. 2012; Yang and Liu 2012), it is valid to ask to what extent the variation in the metabolomes of Crataegus species parallels the variation in DNA sequences.
A better cross-species parallel might utilize the DBA/2 mouse, with the AHR allele of reduced binding affinity, in the murine model [ 98].
While it is generally expected, and often observed, that closely related populations or species have parallel genetic bases to parallel phenotypes, exceptions are not rare and show that alternative genetic routes can result in similar phenotypes.
Interestingly, although the two species share parallel intraspecific clade structures supporting parallel refugia, mtDNA haplotype diversity of A. alosa is much lower than for A. fallax.
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