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What is interesting about punctuational effects is that speciation itself may be an important factor in increasing the rate of evolutionary change.
Introgression may often contribute to adaptive evolution as well as sometimes to speciation itself, via hybrid speciation.
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Sexual selection is considered one of the major causes for morphological diversification among species [ 13, 14], if not for the speciation process itself [ 15, 16].
2R-WGD was most likely an instantaneous speciation, in itself an extraordinary evolutionary event, somewhat contrary to the classic Darwinian view of gradual evolution.
Species are fundamental units in biology, yet conceptually defining them has been a difficult task owing to the complexity and continuity of the speciation process itself and the diversity of reproductive modes among organisms.
Genomic sequence data provide information not only about population demographic processes of modern species (Wilson et al. 2003; Heled and Drummond 2008) but also about such processes in extinct ancestral species (Rannala and Yang 2003) and even about the mode and timing of the speciation process itself.
That is, if the process of speciation plays no role itself in causing change, then we do not expect that modern species at the end of paths through the tree with more speciation events will have diverged more from their common ancestor at the base of the tree.
However, having fewer enemies does not in itself increase speciation probabilities in individual sawfly lineages, partly because the high diversity of the enemy community facilitates compensatory attack by remaining parasite taxa.
During a population bottleneck, i.e. in the first stage of peripatric speciation, the population rids itself of most of the originally present rare alleles; however, it retains most of the common alleles that are responsible for genetic homeostasis [ 41- 44].
Altogether, the picture that shapes itself regarding speciation in sticklebacks adapted to lake environments is one where either hidden recessive phenotypes, or relatively probable inactivating mutations initially result in recessive advantageous phenotypes, promoting successive steps of saeptation from the ancestral stock of fish of anadromous origin.
This finding also implies that the co-speciation hypothesis is itself internally consistent.
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