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Generally speaking, questionnaire studies report higher prevalence figures than clinical studies, for example, the reported prevalence of DHS is up to 74 % based on questionnaire studies [ 16, 19– 22], whereas prevalence figures based on clinical findings are generally in the 15 30 % range, depending on the population studied [ 11].
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Since the improvement in listening and speaking questionnaires contain similar expressions, three items out of five from each category (Lt3, Lt4, Lt5, Sp1, Sp2 and Sp5) were excluded for the analysis, based on the communality scores, in order to reduce redundancy.
The largest groups are Vietnamese, Chinese, Turkish and Arabic speaking women, and the questionnaire was translated into these four languages by qualified external translators.
Following a short open-ended discussion about HF caregiving, caregivers were asked to complete version 1.0 of the CBQ-HF using a 'think aloud' exercise – a recommended method for cognitive debriefing [ 32]. 'Think-aloud' involves the respondent completing the questionnaire and speaking aloud their thoughts as they read each instruction and complete each item [ 33].
These self-ratings were assessed separately for writing, reading, listening, and speaking proficiency, as many questionnaires do.
There is apparently no translation for "optimistic" in Pashtun and a quarter of Pakistanis completing the questionnaire were Pashtun speaking and born abroad.
The objective was to check the suitability of the adapted DOLBaPP German version of the optimal questionnaire within German speaking countries [ 26].
The current study attempted to address problems with measurement of SE noted by Mills (2014), by creating a questionnaire focused solely on speaking SE, and then using the Rasch Model to analyze the questionnaire data, before conducting subsequent analyses.
Generally speaking, translation of scales and questionnaires requires explicit attention since translation may influence validity [ 35].
Analyzing the methodological details, however, five of the randomized controlled investigations were performed (at least in part) in not English speaking countries and VISA-A questionnaires which are not cross-culturally adapted were used [ 10, 11, 13- 15].
The questionnaire was designed in three languages (Russian, English, and German) to allow the experts speaking different languages to participate in the questionnaire.
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