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"We tried to investigate the extent of this as well as we could with the usual sounding techniques and didn't get a very good answer".
Modern sounding techniques have been developed for the space-borne exploration of Earth's magnetosphere and topside ionosphere.
Various sounding techniques ranging from VLF to UHF bands are employed to observe the ionospheric waves (Davies, 1990; Hunsucker, 1991).
Ionospheric signatures of long-period ULF waves (Pc4 5, Pi2 3) can be detected by modern HF radio sounding techniques: Doppler sounders (Menk et al. 2007; Waters et al. 2007; Pilipenko et al. 2013) and SuperDARN HF radars (Lester et al. 2000; Ponomarenko et al. 2001; Teramoto et al. 2014).
The use of GNSS receivers installed on low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites to measure the refracted radio signals (GNSS-RO) coupled with ground-based atmospheric sounding techniques that use continuously operating reference station (CORS) networks for the determination of water vapour (WV) variability form the basis for GNSS meteorology.
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Radar is in fact the only sounding technique which is able to penetrate their icy mantles, which can be many kilometers thick.
The channel sounding technique is based on a frequency sweep mode with a total bandwidth set to 1024 MHz using a VNA ABB millimètre 8-350 [30]]. 8-350 [30]
Results of HF diagnostics of traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) over the Antarctic Peninsula are presented that have been obtained in the frequency-and-angular sounding technique developed at the Institute of Radio Astronomy, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Kharkov, Ukraine).
The disturbed region of the ionosphere in Vasil'sursk was probed by the vertical sounding technique using the partial reflexion radar at the frequency of 2.95 and 4.7 MHz.
So, the vertical sounding technique, accepted as a benchmark for ionospheric research, was not able to provide the necessary information about the ionosphere's state at different mid-latitude locations of the Northern Hemisphere during the main and/or recovery phases of this storm.
They have used IRS 1C LISSIII data and vertical electrical sounding (VES) techniques for identification groundwater prospect zones in hard rock terrain.
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