We found a significant difference in the distribution of the effect sizes of traits under abiotic and biotic selection using a Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 53.3806, p = 2.748e-13).
Although the appropriate ratio varied depending on the genetic diversity, population size, heritability of traits and the number of QTLs, it can be suggested that a higher training : breeding population ratio is required with greater genetic diversity, smaller-sized breeding populations, lower heritability of traits and larger numbers of existing QTLs to obtain GEBVs with high accuracy.
It has also been proposed that the effect size of these traits is important, as that factor may determine directly whether the trait contributes to speciation [ 81]; furthermore, this effect size is dependent on the external environment and other modifiers [ 82].
The small effect size of disease traits requires a large sample size to gain statistical power.
Hence, it is possible that genetic variation leading to clasper size diversification also affects the size of other traits such as the posterior lobes and anal plates.
This means that in all cases, the D. mauritiana alleles cause a reduction in the size of both traits, indicating that these effects could be caused by the same genes.
In addition, in order to understand the potential consequences, the exact role and relative importance of each sexually selected trait in female choice is required, as is the consequences of the size of each trait for survival on transition to the t-phase.
At all QTLs, alleles from the cultivated parent increase the size of each trait.
In addition, the immunological challenge reduced redness and size of the trait as well as androgens levels in both sexes and in all treatments.
The second QTL has the same vector of sizes for traits 1 and 3 but opposite signs for trait 2. The third QTL is absent for traits 1 and 2. Finally, trait 2 does not express for the fourth QTL.
