Electricity shortages have shrunk productivity.
"When air quality improves, health costs from air pollution related diseases shrink, worker productivity expands and life expectancy grows.
The rate of real economic growth is probably the most important determinant and in that respect many people are gloomy: the trend rate of growth in America may have dropped to 2% or below while pessimists put the European rate at 1%. Demographic trends mean the workforce is likely to stagnate or shrink, leaving productivity to do all the work expanding the economy.
Loss of livestock due to factors such as declining land productivity, shrinking grazing areas, restricted movements, and the recurrent droughts has resulted in increased poverty and vulnerability of pastoral households and erosion of their resilience to future shocks (Fratkin 2008; Groom and Western 2013; Kirwa et al. 2012; Moyo et al. 2013).
The city cannot rely on new migrants for its economic vigour; with a static or shrinking population, it needs productivity gains.
China's population is aging and its labor force is shrinking, meaning that labor productivity has to be raised to make up for the shortfall.
Deflation needs little help destroying an economy, but in Japan's case it is abetted by aging demographics and lagging innovation: Japan's working-age population started shrinking in 1995, and productivity growth ground to a halt shortly thereafter.
America's manufacturing output has been expanding while manufacturing employment has been shrinking due to dramatic productivity increases, a phenomenon that is also at work in China and other rapidly industrializing economies.
"The outcome is simple: manufacturers either improve productivity, shrink their margins or pass the costs on to consumers".
