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The present paper discusses evidence and diagnostics for the primary energy release and energy transport, focusing on i) the hypothesis that active stellar coronae are heated by a stochastic sequence of flares, and ii) that these flares involve chromospheric evaporation to increase the coronal temperature, its emission measure, and the electron density.
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We extrapolate the observed flare frequency-energy release scaling relation to total X-ray energies much larger than seen so far for the Sun, an assumption supported by observations of flares on other solar- and subsolar-mass main sequence stars.
Costs of severe flare episodes included costs attributable to all three levels of flares beginning from the start of the severe flare episode and ending after 30 days.
where τ flare and E flare indicate the duration and bolometric energy of flares.
Several studies have attempted to define flare, including time to flare, numbers of flares, and severity of flares.
Patients recorded details of flares in diaries.
The number of flares per patient during the 1 year follow-up period ranged from 0 flares to 9 flares, and on average patients had 0.73 flares.
‡No record of flares in the medical record was counted as no flares (zero).
Number of flares and flare-related costs were also reported for SLE patients.
We may have underestimated the prevalence of flares, as we missed short-term subjective flares by focusing on 3-monthly DAS measurements for our flare definition.
Figure 1 depicts the frequency of flares of different duration.
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