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Cooperation is also more sensitive to punishment in low-corruption scenarios.
This suggests that drug users, including cigarette smokers, may be more sensitive to rewards and less sensitive to punishment.
Finally, youth with conduct problems in combination with CU traits seems to have deficits in processing signs of fear and distress in others, they seem to be less sensitive to punishment and show more fearless or thrill seeking behavior.
In a more neurophysiologically oriented theory covering both ADHD and OD D/CD Quay [ 18, 19] following Gray [ 20] argued that the behavioural activation system (BAS, sensitive to reward) and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS, sensitive to punishment) may reflect distinct pathways for inhibition deficits.
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Specifically, a range of road safety messages (i.e., gain-frame and loss-frame messages) could be designed which align with the processing biases associated with personality and which would target those individuals who are sensitive to rewards and those who are sensitive to punishments.
In turn, children experiencing such dual risk might be less sensitive to punishment-oriented strategies and will therefore show more antisocial behavior compared to children growing up without this genetic and/or environmental risk, specifically when the current environment relies on harsh and/or unpredictable punishment for socialization.
Individual differences in sensitivity to punishment predict greater behaviour responses under conditions of threat and punishment [ 11, 12].
However, dopamine activations seem to be far more sensitive to reward than punishment.
First, in healthy subjects, increased reward exposure is associated with increased brain activity in mesolimbic regions [ 18, 19], which has been demonstrated to be sensitive to reward and punishment [ 20, 21].
This supports the findings of Block and Gerety [ 46], who showed in a social dilemma that individuals who had previously committed crime (offenders), were more sensitive to changes in punishment risk than university students.
It is possible that individuals who showed free riding preferences were more sensitive to the change in punishment risk in the non-implemented punishment condition, where the threat of punishment was not confirmed.
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CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com