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The authors also do not explicitly quantify the school contribution to the immigrant-native achievement gap.
Peer characteristics still explain most of school contribution to the achievement gap.
So potentially, school fixed effects might underestimate the upper bound of the school contribution to the achievement gap.
Finally, we analyze the robustness of the estimated school contribution to the achievement gap to controlling for individual characteristics.
In reading and sciences, attenuation of the estimated school contribution to the achievement gap is even smaller.
Even this small estimate of the school contribution is generally not robust to the inclusion of individual controls.
In fact, due to potential sorting of students with different characteristics into different schools, the estimated school contribution is likely to be an overestimate.
We observe that the size and the significance of the school contribution (as measured by school fixed effects) is reduced after controlling for individual characteristics.
Thus the attenuation of the estimated upper bound of the school contribution to the achievement gap is unlikely to be an important issue.
Given that immigrants tend to study in schools where teachers have relatively smaller teaching loads, the school contribution to the total achievement gap is underestimated when using school fixed effects.
Naturally, the true school contribution is likely to be even smaller than the total between-school variation of the gap, since it is likely that students with different family characteristics sort in different schools and it is family background, and not school characteristics, that explain a part of the total school effect.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
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