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At these scales, the effect of the surface and residual surface stresses on the overall deformation of the bulk material is of critical importance.
Heritability can be thought of as a natural scaling factor; it scales the effect of selection in one generation on the distribution of phenotypes in the next generation.
Detailed formulation of the introduced features is presented in Section 5. Before giving the formulation of the feature set in this section, we should remark that the subjective nature of the emotion forces researchers to employ a reference criteria which scales the effect of this subjectivity.
On the basis of the mean standard deviation from the trials that had used visual analogue scales, the effect of acupuncture (standardised mean difference −0.17, −0.26 to −0.07) corresponds to a reduction of 4 (2 to 6) mm on a 100 mm scale.
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However, at smaller, management-relevant scales, the effects of incorporating unreported catches were large (changes in functional diversity of up to 46%).
To eliminate the inconvenience of using masks of different scales, the effects of employing an unchanged input with a certain fixed scale on the final FRTs are investigated.
At community-wide scales, the effects of ecological factors spatially co-varying with diversity, make the most diverse communities most likely to be invaded [28].
On short time scales, the effects of larval dispersals in ocean currents play out against an ice-age legacy.
Furthermore, at the EEZ scale, the effect of accounting for unreported catches had a considerable impact on functional diversity estimates in some locations.
For the smallest scale, the effect of a small deviation from geometric similarity was also investigated.
At landscape-scale, the effect of introducing agroforestry on 10 or 50% of the agricultural area, on either the best or worst quality land, was examined.
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