Several scales have been considered, ranging from the centimetric scale of the samples to the local scale of their microstructure.
Note that all variables are related to the local scale of the sampled arable field.
The scale of the samples is standardized by setting the distance between L p and R p to unit, i.e., every vertex (x y z) of the skull and face is replaced by ( x | L p R p |, y | L p R p |, z | L p R p | ).
Additional studies are needed to increase the scale of the sampling design, i.e., hundreds of meters to several kilometres.
Furthermore, isolation-by-distance was most frequently detected when the scale of the sampling exceeded 250 km, suggesting that below this scale, there is extensive seed dispersal.
Mussels from each vent field were collected in a restricted area of the mussel bed, but given the highly chaotic mixing conditions encountered at hydrothermal vents, we have to consider variations in both sulfide and methane availability, even at the scale of the sampling patch.
This non-exponential decay arises from an excitation transfer from the Mn ions to so-called killer centers, i.e., non-radiative defects in the nanostructures and is strongly related to the interplay of the characteristic length scales of the sample such as the spatial extensions, the distance between killer centers, and the distance between Mn ions.
In summary, by combining X-ray imaging techniques that probe different length scales of the sample, the 3 D structure of FCC preshaped catalyst bodies could be visualized.
The analytical framework also enables checking to see if the scale works in the same way across groups (invariance as determined by Differential Item Functioning-DIF) and examining the reliability and targeting of the scale to the sample.
