Latencies and omissions: At no point during the discrimination or reversal phases were there any differences between groups in the latency to collect the reward (Table 3) or in the number of omissions (data not shown).
The task rats reached forward into a portal, extended their forearm, grabbed a handle and then exerted a target isometric pull for at least 50 ms at a force effort of either 15% (0.23 Newtons) or 53% (1.02 Newtons) of their average maximum pulling force (± 5%), for low force or high force, respectively, as appropriate for their group, for a food reward (Table 1; Additional file 1: Figure S1).
While free-riders' contributions also increase under trophy rewards (Table 3), they nevertheless remain low.
The second potential strategy we considered, involved determining whether the animals were successful at making what-where choices, considering either food type rewarding (Table 3).
On the other hand, floral traits that are directly linked with nectar rewards would more reliably indicate floral profitability to pollinators in that they have a higher temporal resolution and allow remote sensing of energy rewards (Table 1).
Six attributes were deemed sufficiently important to warrant inclusion in the final DCE instrument: salary, duration of service until promotion to permanent staff, duration of service until qualified for further study and scholarship, housing provision, transportation provision, and performance-based financial rewards (Table 1).
Despite a number of students not obtaining the bonus, or perhaps falling marginally short of the 70%, which some intimated was disappointing, many nonetheless admitted that 70% was an attainable goal in which understanding and consistent effort are rewarded (Tables 3 and 4).
However, VTA/SN also project to caudate and putamen, regions recently recognized as important in reward-based decision making [85], and those regions did activate significantly less in patients than in controls during the yellow-light period of decision-making and reward anticipation (Table 5); patients were relatively insensitive to reward anticipation there.
Thus, as expected, our patients and controls did not activate these regions upon reward delivery (Tables 6, 7).
Before we focus on the evidence regarding these behaviors, we give an overview over the existing psychological and economic literatures on the potentially undermining effect of rewards; see Table 1 for an overview.
If adult raven pairs abandon their territories in the vicinity of large, stable roosts of juveniles (i.e. p→0 in the Dall [14] notation), as appears to be the case at the Newborough roost [6], inspection of the reward matrix in Table 1 in Tables S1 reveals that the typical (ancestral) juvenile raven foraging behavior (SR) can be vulnerable to invasion by gang-based foraging.
