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This discrepancy could be the result of two types of memory effects that can lead to erroneous reporting by respondents: errors of omission and of telescoping [ 41].
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As a consequence, respondent errors — or outright lies — cannot be canceled out.
Therefore, the data from these countries need to be checked, because outliers can occurred due to coding errors, respondent errors or large true values.
Additionally, respondent errors that require more attention are plotted on the bottom right quadrant.
For each question, non blank respondent errors (i.e. the allocation of more or less than 100 points) were corrected by proportionally adjusting the responses to sum up to 100.
In addition to the above problems, African data have faced sampling (inappropriate sample size and sampling technique) and non-sampling error (respondent error, non response, recording error, etc).
Third, the mix-and-match approach used to develop the answer options introduces additional respondent error.
The largest source of respondent error in open-ended data is again name confusion between students.
Respondent error was evident in the 13 questions following a question offering a branch option.
As with other surveys, respondent error and misreporting may have affected prevalence estimates for illicit unbranded tobacco, considering its illegal status.
The advantage of using Census data lies mainly in its coverage, virtually 100% complete, and sophisticated quality assurance processes aimed at minimising potential sources of errors such as undercounting, partial response, respondent error, and processing error [ 45].
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com