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The judge, Richard J. Sullivan of Federal District Court, said that the city had lacked the required probable cause because the police were unaware of whether each individual protester had broken the law.
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"That's a search," Patterson said, drawing a distinction between the city's stop-and-frisk practice and a search, which requires probable cause.
For a more intrusive frisk, the courts require "probable cause" to believe that the person is carrying a weapon, not simply a hunch.
"Requiring probable cause to get basic, limited information about a person's historical location would make it significantly more difficult to solve crimes and seek justice for victims".
But he said he strongly opposed banning so-called consent searches -- searches of cars that are conducted when troopers get the driver's permission but that do not require probable cause.
A lower court sided with the police, ruling that the five-minute incident did not amount to an arrest, but rather was a brief "stop and frisk" that does not require probable cause.
Stokes' argument was simple: The Fourth Amendment requires probable cause to arrest someone, and suspicion is not probable cause.
In Utah, the legislature passed a bill requiring probable cause before police could execute a no-knock raid.
"The million dollar question is are the police getting search warrants, and the reason that's important is because a warrant requires probable cause.
It also states that valid warrants require "probable cause" and a particular description of the place to be searched and the persons or objects to be seized.
A warrant requires probable cause to be shown and it's clear that the hoovering of call metadata is indiscriminate in its scope and that probable cause is not available.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com