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The phasic alerting (benefit) effect is defined as: Alerting = RT no cue−RT double cue, representing the benefit of the target response speed because of alerting.
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Moreover, group mean results do not convey response levels and thus have limited value in representing the benefit-risk at an individual level.
The matrix represents the benefit to system which secondary user n applies the channel j.
The effective carbon price represents the benefit which will directly go to the forest owner.
The first term of Eq. (4) [(wus − pcus) − (wmx − cmx)] represents the benefit of remaining an additional month in the USA.
Let U s (r s ) be a utility function that represents the benefit to the system achieved by a flow rate r s.
After that, a profit function is used to evaluate the QoS of the chosen serving node, which represents the benefit that the MS can gain by choosing a serving node (i.e., the BS or some RS).
Let U k represent the benefit of farmer to choose the Kth market outlet: where K denotes the choice of retailers (Y1), cooperatives (Y2), collectors (Y3), and consumers (Y4).
The farmer chooses to adopt the Kth technology if (Y_{jpK}^ = U_{K}^ - U_{i} > 0) where U i denotes the benefit to the farmer from the traditional production system and U K represents the benefit from adopting the Kth technology.
The vertical distance between the option curve at the terminal period (broken curve) and initial period (bold curve) represents the benefit of the option to wait which is equal to ((V_{text{T}} left( {P_{{{text{C}},{text{t}}}} } right) - V_{0} left( {P_{{{text{C}},t}} } right)).
In the two equations above, R i,j represents the number of node which can't be shared channel j with user i. ( raisebox{1ex}{$bmathrm{i},mathrm{j}$} left/ !raisebox{-1ex}{$left(Rmathrm{i},mathrm{j}+1right)$}right. ) represents the benefit that the user i bring to the system.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com