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Given the way the events are related, observing whether $X$ or $\neg X$ landed uppermost is a noisy channel to learn about whether or not $H$ landed uppermost.
The review takes the form of a 'snapshot' of models, related observing systems and dissemination procedures in use early in 1999.
Because distance and time are related — observing a star that is 13 billion years old requires looking out a distance of 13 billion light-years — the search would require a massive and extraordinarily sensitive telescope, such as the upcoming Thirty-Meter Telescope and the Giant Magellan Telescope.
For example, Clarence Dupnik, Pima County Sheriff, initially expressed concern that overheated political rhetoric and violence may be related, observing, "When you look at unbalanced people, how they respond to the vitriol that comes out of certain mouths about tearing down the government.
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Although various remote sensing approaches have been developed to monitor insect impacts, most studies have focused on single insect agents or single locations and have not related observed changes to ground-based measurements.
The reactivity of TfuDyP with dithionite and H2O2 and the related observed spectral characteristics are fully in line with typical features of a heme-containing peroxidase.
The measurement model relates observed responses or "indicators" to latent variables and sometimes to observed covariates (i.e., the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model).
The purpose of our study was to relate observed differences in I. ricinus ticks questing activity to local climate.
Several traditions exist for the formulation of such models that relate observed to unobserved variables, and the concepts of reliability and validity are often used to interpret the quality of measurement from such designs.
Most developing countries approximate adult HIV incidence using mathematical models that relate observed HIV prevalence to HIV incidence, which make assumptions on the average survival of HIV-infected individuals and the effect of antiretroviral (ARV) treatment on survival [3], [4].
Other goals include relating observed concentrations to administered doses through identification of predictive covariates in a target population.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com